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Russian (Russia) 
Legend:
Red arrows - Directions of attacks of the Russian troops
Blue arrows - Directions of attacks of the Livonian troops
The term of the 1535 truce treaty between Russia and Livonia expired in 1550. Livonia intended to renew it for another 6–15 years, similarly to the previous truces since 1503. But Moscovia raised «non-rectification» claims, and it is unclear what the «non-rectification» consisted in. Apparently, they were related to some «offences» inflicted upon Russian merchants in Livonia. One-year truce extension was granted to the Livonians for «rectification». However, in 1551 Moscovia forgot about Livonia as an extensive campaign against the Khanate of Kazan, which ended in the conquest of Kazan on 2 October 1551. Upon expiry of the truce Livonia found itself in the «neither peace or war» state. The Order waited awhile, but neither attacks occurred nor negotiations were initiated, and in 1554 the Livonian diplomats went to Moscovia to extend the truce.
And they were in for a surprise there: the Russians raised financial claims and demanded payment of the so called Yuriev tribute. This tribute had been mentioned in the treaty between the Bishop of Dorpat and Pskov since 1463, yet never paid. Now the new claims of the Russians extended the tribute over the entire Livonian territory, and the responsibility for such payments was rested upon the Livonian Master. Then some linguistic misunderstanding followed: the treaties were drafted in Russian and translated into German. The Russian text of the treaty required that the tribute should be collected for a three-year period, otherwise the tzar would go and «gain» it. The Russian tzar's way to «gain tribute» was clear obvious to all — it was a war threat. This clause was translated as «an investigation of tribute grounds will be conducted in three years», which converted the war threat into potential legal proceedings. This interpretation inspired the Livonians greatly, and they began to prepare an appeal («protest») to the imperial court of the Holy Roman Empire against the unfair claims of the Russians instead of collecting the tribute. But when they formally announced it to Russian envoys, the latter indifferently responded: «And what is your emperor to our tzar?»
It is still unclear to what extent the tribute claim was just a casus belli and to what extent Russia actually wanted money from the Livonians. It is also unclear how the situation would have evolved had Livonia paid the tribute, yet the Order did not want to do it because fairly regarded it as acknowledgement of subordination to Moscovia. In any case, in November 1557, prior to delivery by the Livonian envoys to Moscow of documentary proof of illegitimacy of tribute claims by the Russians, a declaration of war against the Livonian Order was issued (three months after issuance of a similar declaration by King Sigismund II Augustus).
On 22–25 January 1558 (according to various sources), the Russian army crossed the Livonian border and headed for Neuhausen (Neygausen) castle (57° 43′ 49″ N, 27° 21′ 41″ E) which had functioned as a border stronghold since the 14th century, and virtually all Russian raids from Pskov started at its walls. Livonia had no infrastructure for defending its border with Russia but for three castles that «held the fort»: Neuhausen, Neuschloss and Narva. The Livonians believed that in the event of a military campaign the Russians would inevitably head for the nearest castle and siege it, and that this castle would be able to resist for several days in any case. In the meanwhile, the major forces would arrive from the centre of Livonia and counter-attack.
Neygausen, ruins
Neygausen, ruins
Before 1558 this scenario would generally work, but the army that entered into Livonia was big enough to siege a border stronghold, surround it and attack from various directions. The route of this campaign lay in a semi-circle connecting Pskov and Narva borders west of Lake Chudskoye, mostly across the Dorpat Episcopate, which was the primary target for tribute recovery. According to the Russian chronicler, the regiments had not reached Riga 50 and Tallinn (Revel) 30 verst. It seems to be an exaggeration (who measured the missing distance?), and it looks more like individual raids in the direction of Riga and Revel (also known as reconnaissance patrols).
The primary purpose of this campaign consisted in deterrence. This punitive action for non-payment of the tribute was intended to make the Livonians more cooperative. One can imagine the situation in Livonia in those days by the events that took place in St. Michael's Church in Jõhvi (59° 21′ 34″ N 27° 24′ 39″ E), for example. Upon approach of the Russian army the local Estonian farmers (around one hundred persons) locked themselves inside this church as they recalled its stronghold function in the 14th century. The Estonians defended themselves under command of four Livonians, and on 3 February brushwood was laid around the church and it was set to fire with its defenders.
Yihve, St. Mikhail church
Yihve, St. Mikhail church
This case is a perfect example of the situation in Livonian villages and farmsteads in January–February 1558. The knights of the Order hid in their castles, while non-combatant farmers were virtually turned adrift and had to take care of themselves as best they could. Some of them relied on God and tried to shelter in churches, while others took to arms.
Russian troops in Livonia used reconnaissance patrolling strategy, i.e., they scattered over an extensive territory and conducted warfare mostly in rural areas. This was not consistent advancement of the forces from one castle to another, but scattering forces over a certain zone with subsequent return to the major forces. There were several castles that stood on the way of the forces of Ivan the Terrible and were in the epicentre of the battles. One of them was Laiuse castle (58° 48′ 43″ N 26° 32′ 39″ E). The Russian cavalry was taken under fire from the walls of this castle, and in retaliation it was attacked by field gun fire. Among them were the outskirts of Dorpat with Falkenau abbey (modern Kärkna 58° 27′ 49″ N , 26° 36′ 8″ E), an asset of the Bishop of Dorpat. Another one was Ass manor (modern Kiltsi) where Robert von Gilsen gathered his troop that slipped in, was sieged in the castle and perished during a combat assault. It was the neighbourhood of Oberpahlen castle (modern Põltsamaa 58° 39′ N 25° 58′ E), where the battles lasted for several days. It was Borckholm castle (modern Porkuni 59° 11′ 18″ N 26° 11′ 51″ E), where the first known Russian female cavalry soldier Katia was killed. It was Wesenberg castle (modern Rakvere 59° 21′ N 26° 21′ E). Then it was a large castle, so both the neighbourhood nobility and farmers relied on help from there, but the Livonians opted to sit it out inside its sturdy walls for fear of Russian cavalry circling around the castle. Today some of these castles are nothing but ruins, while others underwent significant alterations in later periods (after having become part of the estates of Baltic nobility).
Lais, ruins
Lais, ruins
Lais, ruins
Falkenau abbey, ruins
Ass manor (modern Kiltsi)
Oberpahlen castle (modern Põltsamaa)
Borckholm castle (modern Porkuni)
Wezenberg, ruins
The outcome was that 4000 thousand homes, villages and manors were destroyed by fire within a fortnight. As a rule, the Russians did not siege or attempt to take castles by storm, preferring to avoid them. They conquered and destroyed only a few small castles similar to Ass or Borckholm that essentially were merely fortified manors.
Alexander Filyushkin