Routes:

• Winter campaign of 1558

• Summer campaign of 1558

• Fighting in 1559–1560

• Campaign of 1560

• Sieges of Reval 1570–1571 and 1577

• Campaign of 1577

• The first campaign of Stephen Bathory in 1579

• The second campaign of Stephen Bathory in 1580

• The Third route, 1581. The end of the War

• Russian-Swedish wars 1570–1595

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In the 16th century combination of several factors made a redistribution of the territories inevitable. First, the era of the domination of the Knights of the Teutonic and the Livonian Orders that lasted from the 13th to the 15th century was coming to an end. The northern crusading orders had degenerated both militarily, politically and ideologically. The Reformation dealt a shattering blow to the German Orders in the Baltic. The Reformation made towns, which had been separatistic before, independent from the Orders. Sweden became independent in 1523, when the Kalmar Union disintegrated, and now wanted to occupy a fitting place in the Baltic region. Denmark in its turn was seeking to find a compensation for the lost influence on Sweden. The attention of the both countries was attracted by Livonia, which was easy pray.

In 1525 Prussia has become a vassal of Poland. The Duke of Prussia Albert Hohenzollern has sworn a fealty to the Polish King Sigismund I the Old. Next was the Livonian Order, a «junior» branch of the Teutonic Knights. The Polish aggressive policy was supported by the GDL, an old enemy of the Teutonic Knights.

Russia had access to the Baltic: Russia possessed the coast of the Gulf of Finland from the mouth of the Neva River to the mouth of the Narova River. However this coast was not suitable for sea trade: there were neither ports, nor trade posts, nor fleet, nor the necessary infrastructure. But neighbouring Livonia possessed all these as it was the intermediary in the trade between Russia and Europe. Russia wanted to get profit from the sea trade and the decision was obvious: get control of the Livonian trade. It could be achieved by making the Livonians pay tribute, if they agreed to pay rather than letting the Russians use their infrastructure.

All these desires and expectations of the Baltic states implied one thing: the Livonian Order had to cease to exist and its territory, towns, money and other riches had to serve other nations. All neighbours regarded Livonia as potential pray.

In 1551 a thirty-year’s truce between Livonia and Moscow was running out. In 1554 negotiations were conducted in the Russian capital, during which the Livonians had an unpleasant surprise. They were presented a whole bunch of accusations, each one being a potential casus belli: violation of former agreements, persecution of Orthodox communities in Livonia, desecration of Orthodox temples, restriction of Russian trade with Europe caused by detention of craftsmen and certain kinds of goods etc. Moscow diplomats said that the only way for Livonia to make up for its faults was to pay so called Yuryevskaya tribute for many years in advance and carry out other Russian demands. The Yuryevskaya tribute was first mentioned in documents in 1463. The thing is, every time the peace was prolonged, three peace treaties were made up: between Livonia and Novgorod the Great, between Livonia and Pskov and between the Bishop of Dorpat (Yuryev) and Pskov. The tribute was mentioned only in the latter treaty and concerned only Dorpat. The bishop ignored paying the tribute and the Russians did not insist, until 1554.

In 1556 in Livonia a rebellion started instigated by Poland, the rebellion was raised by a commander Jasper von Münster, who had Archbishop Wilhelm behind him. The troops of the Order besieged the castle of Kokenhusen, the centre of the rebellion. The rebels were defeated. Wilhelm of Brandenburg was removed from the post of the archbishop of Riga and put under arrest in the castle of Smilten where he spent one year. But in 1557 Polish-Lithuanian troops concentrated near Livonia border, and king Sigismund offered the Order to make peace on condition that Livonia restores all the damage it had done to Lithuania and Poland and gave back all the property of the Bishop of Riga. In September 1557 Sigismund and master Fürstenberg signed the Pozvolsky peace treaty. After the Pozvol peace treaty the way to the Livonian War was open. These events named so called «War of coadjutors».

At the end of January 1558, Russian troops crossed the Livonian border. The aim of the raid was to make the non-payers pay, to threaten, to make the Order understand that tribute is better than a devastating war.The troops made a semicircular route from the border of Pskov lands to the border of Narva lands to the west of the Lake Peipus, mostly over the lands of the Bishopric of Dorpat, the lands that the money were mainly wrung from. The Livonian Order made no resistance to the Russian troops.

In May, 1558 The Russians had taken the Livonian fortress of Narva and the character of the war changed abruptly. Capturing Narva opened new prospects for Ivan’s the Terrible campaign, more tempting than just extorting tribute. The events of the first half of 1558 showed that the Order did not pose a serious military threat and could become an easy pray. On 6th of June, the troops that had captured Narva occupied Neuschloss (Syrensk of Russian papers). Russians also advanced into the south-eastern part of Odinpe, that is the long-suffering bishopric of Dorpat. In June the castles of Etz (Adezh of Russian documents) and Neuhausen were taken. These were the first Russian acquisitions in Livonia. In July 1558 Kirrumpäh, Dorpat, Randen, Ringen etc. were taken by Russian troops. In October the troops of the Order under Kettler made their first successful counterstroke. In November, after six weeks of siege, Kettler recaptured a first castle, Ringen, and moved on to Dorpat. This counterattack revealed that Russian army in Livonia was weak and, in order to block Kettler’s advance, troops were manoeuvred from Wesenberg, Dorpat and even from the Russian territory, from Vyshgorod and Krasny.

On 17th of January 1559, 50,000 Russian troops crossed the Livonian border in seven different places.The January campaign of 1559 seems to have been designed as an analogue of the January champagne of 1558, however it was more violent. Military action was aimed at the destruction of castles, villages, town neighbourhoods, and enemy troops. CastlesSmilten, Serben, Schujen, Erlaa, Sunzel, Rodenpois and others were taken by assault and burned.In the battle at Tirsen the Livonian army was defeated.

On 31st of August 1559, in Vilna, the First Vilna Pact was made between Sigismund II Augustus and Gothard Kettler. The King of Poland took the lands of Livonia under his protection.King received the lands of the Order on the middle reaches of the Western Dvina, and the castles of Dinaburg, Selburg, Ludsen, Rositten and Bauskewere given him as security. In September 1559, under the agreement of Neubourg, Danish king Frederick II bought Island Ösel for 30,000 thaler. In April 1560, troops of 19-year old Danish Duke Magnus, who started to implement the agreement of Neubourg of 1559, landed at Arensburg. In September 1560, Reval citizens and nobility of Nothern Estonia applied to Sweden for assistance. The Swedes promised money, troops and protection, if Reval became subject of the Swedish crown.

In January 1560, Russian army invaded Livonia again.In July and August Fellin, Ruyen, Tarwast and Oberpahlenwere taken.On 2nd of August 1560, near Ermes, a battle took place that became the last large battle in Eastern Europe in which northern crusaders were involved. The Livonian army was destroyed by Moscow troops. The commander of the army and practically all military leaders of the Order (commanders Werner Böll, Heinrich von Galen, Christopher Sieberg and Reinhold Sass) died in captivity.

On 28th of November 1561, the Second Vilna Pact officially recognised the partition of the Livonian Order. All its possessions formally passed under the jurisdiction of Lithuania and Poland. The last Master recognised himself as a vassal of Sigismund II Augustus and was granted duchies of Courland and Semigalia as his fief. The Livonian war with the Livonian Order was over.

Alexander Filyushkin

 

 

 

Tags: routes, 16 century